Women Farmers: The Backbone of India’s Agricultural Economy

Women play a critical and often under-recognised role in India’s agricultural economy. They are involved in multiple activities such as crop cultivation, livestock rearing, fisheries, seed preservation, post-harvest processing, and household-level food management. According to recent estimates, around 117.6 million women were working in agriculture in 2023–24, which is nearly comparable to the male agricultural workforce of about 127.5 million. This indicates that women form nearly half of the agricultural workforce in India, making them central to the functioning of rural economies and food production systems.

Women’s participation is especially prominent in family-based agricultural activities. In crop production, women contribute substantially through tasks such as sowing, transplanting, weeding, harvesting, and processing. Village-level surveys from Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh conducted under the PARI project reveal that women contributed between 41% and 61% of total labour in crop cultivation in several villages. Similarly, livestock rearing—which is one of the fastest-growing sectors in Indian agriculture—depends heavily on women’s labour. Women perform most daily tasks related to feeding, cleaning, and milking animals.

Despite their extensive involvement, women’s work often remains invisible in official statistics because much of it is unpaid, seasonal, or combined with household responsibilities. For instance, activities like caring for cattle or collecting fodder are frequently seen as extensions of domestic work rather than economic labour. This under-recognition not only distorts labour statistics but also limits women’s access to institutional support, credit, and policy benefits. Therefore, acknowledging women’s contributions is essential for designing inclusive agricultural policies and ensuring gender equity in rural development.

Women’s work in agriculture is frequently undercounted in official statistics because of the nature of rural labour and the limitations of conventional survey methodologies. In India’s agrarian economy, much of women’s work is informal, unpaid, and intertwined with household responsibilities. For example, women may simultaneously manage childcare, cook meals, feed livestock, and assist in farming tasks during the same day. When surveys ask about employment status, many women do not identify themselves as ‘workers’ because they perceive these activities as part of household duties rather than paid labour.

Another challenge arises from the seasonal and intermittent nature of agricultural work. Women often participate in specific tasks such as transplanting or harvesting that occur only during certain periods of the agricultural cycle. Traditional labour force surveys, such as the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), may fail to capture these short-term or irregular contributions. As a result, women who work intensively during peak agricultural seasons may still be recorded as economically inactive.

The lack of gender-disaggregated data on family labour further contributes to the problem. In many smallholder farms, family members collectively contribute labour, but surveys do not always record the individual contribution of women separately. Consequently, their economic role remains obscured in policy discussions. Addressing this issue requires improved data collection methods, including time-use surveys, gender-sensitive labour classifications, and better recognition of unpaid work. Accurate data is crucial because it informs policies related to wages, social protection, and agricultural support for women workers.

The rise in women’s work participation in rural India, from around 35% in 2011–12 to 46.5% in 2023–24, may appear encouraging at first glance. However, a deeper examination reveals that much of this increase is driven by the growth of self-employment rather than wage employment. The proportion of rural women workers classified as self-employed rose from about 60% in 2011–12 to nearly 73% in 2023–24. This shift often reflects a lack of formal job opportunities rather than a genuine expansion of productive employment.

Several structural factors explain this trend. Mechanisation in agriculture has reduced demand for manual labour in tasks such as ploughing and harvesting. At the same time, rural non-farm employment opportunities remain limited for women due to barriers such as lack of education, mobility constraints, and social norms. As a result, many women continue to engage in family-based farming or livestock activities, which are classified as self-employment even though they may generate minimal income.

Another factor is the increasing reliance on livestock rearing and allied agricultural activities as supplementary income sources. Women often take primary responsibility for these activities within households. While such work contributes significantly to household livelihoods, it is usually poorly paid or unpaid. Therefore, the rise in female labour participation should be interpreted cautiously, as it may reflect economic distress and limited alternatives rather than genuine empowerment. Addressing this issue requires expanding rural employment opportunities and improving wages and working conditions for women.

Low wages and significant gender disparities remain defining features of India’s agricultural labour market. In many rural regions, women agricultural workers earn substantially less than their male counterparts. Field studies indicate that women’s daily wages in agriculture often fall below ₹300 per day, and in some regions they earn less than half of what men receive for similar work. For instance, village-level studies in Tamil Nadu found that women earned around ₹290 per day, which was significantly lower than male wages.

Official data confirms this pattern. According to the Labour Bureau, the average daily wage for women engaged in agricultural tasks such as sowing, transplanting, and weeding was about ₹384 in 2025. Although wages vary across states—Kerala being an exception with higher pay levels—the overall trend shows that real wages for women have remained largely stagnant over the past decade when adjusted for inflation. The gender wage gap is often wider in regions where overall wage levels are higher, indicating structural inequalities in labour markets.

Several factors contribute to this disparity. Social norms often assign women to tasks perceived as less skilled, such as weeding or transplanting, which are paid less than tasks typically performed by men. Women also face limited bargaining power due to landlessness, lack of union representation, and restricted access to alternative employment. Addressing the wage gap requires stronger enforcement of equal wage legislation, improved labour rights, and greater access to education and skill development for rural women workers.

Village-level studies provide valuable insights into women’s agricultural work that are often overlooked in national surveys. For example, the PARI project conducted detailed field surveys in villages such as Palakurichi and Venmani in Tamil Nadu and Harveli and Mahatwar in Uttar Pradesh. These studies collected granular data on labour contributions within households, enabling researchers to examine how agricultural tasks are distributed between men and women.

The findings from these villages revealed that women contributed significantly to agricultural labour. In Palakurichi and Venmani, women accounted for over 50% of the total labour used in crop cultivation. Even in villages where their share was lower, women still contributed a substantial portion of the labour required for farming activities. These studies also highlighted women’s dominant role in livestock rearing, where they performed most daily tasks related to feeding animals, cleaning sheds, and milking cattle.

Such micro-level studies are important because they capture forms of labour that standard surveys often miss, including unpaid family labour and part-time agricultural work. By revealing the scale and diversity of women’s contributions, these studies help policymakers design more inclusive agricultural programs. They also underscore the need for gender-sensitive policies that recognise women not merely as helpers but as key economic actors in rural agriculture.

Improving the economic empowerment of women farmers requires a comprehensive policy approach that addresses structural inequalities in land ownership, wages, and access to resources. One of the most important steps is to enhance women’s access to land rights. Currently, only about 10% of rural women own land, which is the primary asset in agriculture. Without land ownership, women often face difficulties accessing institutional credit, crop insurance, and government support schemes. Strengthening legal frameworks that promote joint land titles and inheritance rights can significantly improve women’s economic security.

Another important policy intervention involves improving wage conditions and labour rights. Governments can ensure stricter enforcement of equal wage laws and promote programmes that provide stable employment opportunities for women. Initiatives such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) have already demonstrated potential in creating wage employment for rural women. Expanding such programs and ensuring fair wages can help reduce gender disparities in rural labour markets.

Finally, policies should focus on strengthening women’s participation in agricultural value chains. This includes providing training in modern farming techniques, supporting women’s self-help groups, and promoting access to markets and technology. When combined with improved data collection and gender-sensitive policy design, these measures can ensure that women receive proper recognition and economic returns for their vital contributions to India’s agricultural economy.